Sultan Mahmud II, who reigned from 1808 to 1839, was the 30th Ottoman ruler. He also held the title of the 109th Islamic Caliph. His early years were marked by political intrigue and threats to his life. He ascended to the throne amidst the backdrop of wars and uprisings.
Mahmud's reign saw significant challenges, including conflicts with Russia, uprisings in Greece and Serbia, and internal struggles for power. He implemented reforms that aimed to modernize various aspects of the Ottoman state, including the military, education, and administration. His rule paved the way for the Tanzimat period, which brought about further reforms.
Despite facing criticism for his Western-leaning policies, Mahmud's efforts were instrumental in reshaping the Ottoman Empire. He was the last Ottoman ruler to have the authority to issue executions without a trial.
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1. Sultan Mahmud II, born in 1785, became the 30th Ottoman ruler at the age of 24 in 1808. He was also the 109th Islamic Caliph. His early reign was marked by political turmoil and threats to his life.
2. Sultan Mahmud's cousin, Sultan Selim III, was deposed by his brother Sultan Mustafa IV. During Mustafa's 14-month rule, Prince Mahmud lived in constant fear of assassination.
3. An uprising led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha aimed to reinstate Sultan Selim III, but it resulted in the death of Mustafa IV. Mahmud was spared due to the intervention of his mentors.
4. Shortly after ascending the throne, Mahmud ordered the drowning of Mustafa IV in November 1808. He also signed the "Sened-i Ä°ttifak," a document that aimed to limit the authority of the Sultan in favor of regional leaders.
5. The Sened-i İttifak, meant to empower regional leaders, was largely disregarded after Alemdar Mustafa Pasha's death. The reform led to the disbandment of the "Sekban-ı Cedid" army.
6. Mahmud faced challenges during the ongoing Russo-Turkish War, leading to eventual peace negotiations. He also dealt with uprisings in Yanya, Serbia, and Greece influenced by the French Revolution.
7. Mahmud's actions against uncooperative regional leaders, backed by the Sened-i Ä°ttifak, helped consolidate his authority within the empire.
8. In 1821, a war with Iran occurred, with the Qajar tribe advancing to Diyarbakır. However, due to a cholera outbreak, the Iranian forces retreated, and both sides returned to their original borders through the Erzurum Treaty.
9. Efforts to calm the Serbs were unsuccessful, and Greece's independence could not be prevented. In 1826, Mahmud ordered the brutal dissolution of the Janissaries (Vaka-a i Hayriye).
10. Subsequent calamities included the destruction of the Ottoman and Egyptian fleets at Navarino and territorial losses in the Balkans and Caucasus.
11. Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha rebelled against Mahmud's refusal to grant him the governorship of Syria, with French support. This rebellion caused significant trouble for the Ottoman Empire.
12. In 1839, during the battle in Nizip, Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha was gaining ground toward Egyptian independence when Mahmud passed away from tuberculosis.
13. Sultan Mahmud II is known for his extensive reforms that reshaped the Ottoman Empire. These reforms affected areas like the military, education, culture, and economy. He centralized the weakening administration, enforced new dress codes, and introduced the Muzika-yı Hümayun.
14. His reforms paved the way for the Tanzimat era, which brought further changes to the Ottoman Empire. Despite being praised as a reformist leader, he faced criticism from some quarters for his pro-Western policies.
15. Sultan Mahmud's refusal of an alliance with Napoleon in 1812 led to the signing of the Bucharest Treaty. He was also the last Ottoman ruler to have the authority to execute without a trial.
16. Sultan Selim III, unable to have children, took a keen interest in Sultan Mahmud II during his youth. Mahmud shared Selim's love for music and was skilled in calligraphy and artillery.
17. Sultan Mahmud II, after Osman Gazi and Ibrahim, is the last ancestor of the Ottoman rulers. Of the last six Ottoman sultans, two were his sons, and four were his grandsons.
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