The Road to World War I

During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire experienced a tumultuous period. The rise of nationalism following the French Revolution, technological advancements, and the industrial revolution increased colonialism worldwide, leading to a surge in the demand for raw materials.

Countries like England and France, which established their political formations early on, enhanced their wealth and power by exploiting territories in Africa and India, meeting their significant raw material needs. Meanwhile, in the New World, the United States emerged as a prominent player in global politics with its founding.

Within this century, the Ottoman Empire grappled with external intervention in the Balkans and North Africa, Russia's Panslavism policy, and especially internal minority uprisings supported by foreign powers. Additionally, due to the external debts incurred during the Russo-Turkish wars, the Ottoman Empire faced a financial crisis, leading to the establishment of the organization known as "Duyunu-umumiye" to manage the repayment of these debts.

Simultaneously, a political change in the Ottoman Empire resulted in the dethroning of Sultan Abdulhamid II, culminating in the events of the 31st of March Incident. Sultan V. Mehmet Resat succeeded his brother, Sultan Abdulhamid II. During this period, the Committee of Union and Progress (Ittihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti) rose to a dominant position in the Ottoman Empire, effectively governing the empire from the background.

The Road to World War I (1914-1918)

Led by France and England, the powers, particularly through their colonies in Africa and India, strengthened their positions. Germany, with Italy and Austria-Hungary at its side, sought to expand their colonies and territories to secure new resources. While Germany acquired colonies in the Far East around China and Japan, Italy aimed to seize Tripolitania from the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, engaged in a struggle with Russia to extend its troubled state.

In Russia, under the Romanov dynasty, led by Czar Nicholas II, there was a policy of venturing towards warm waters, focusing its attention on the territories of Austria-Hungary, particularly those of the Ottoman Empire.

Between France and Germany, a long-standing conflict over Alsace-Lorraine, a region rich in coal, persisted. Both sides contended for the area's abundant coal reserves.

Tensions and militarization escalated worldwide, with the spark that would ignite the conflict eagerly anticipated.

The Assassination of Ferdinand: Catalyst for World War I

Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, along with his wife, was tragically assassinated by a Serbian on June 28, 1914, during his visit to Serbia. This event, coupled with Austria-Hungary's belief that Serbia was involved in the assassination, led Austria-Hungary to issue an ultimatum to Serbia, including a list of severe sanctions, backed by Germany's support. When Serbia rejected the sanctions, Austria-Hungary, with Germany's backing, declared war on Serbia. The Serbs, in close relationship with the Russians, declared war on Austria-Hungary in response. France, seeking support from England, initially received a neutral stance from the British, but eventually, England declared war on Germany.

The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the subsequent declaration of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia ignited a global conflict. The initial phase saw Germans engaging the French on the Western Front. Germany's intention was to divert the Russians to the Eastern Front and swiftly eliminate the weakened French forces on the Western Front before returning to face the Russians. However, as the French established a strong defensive line along the German border, the Germans attempted to invade France through Belgium, which they perceived as a weaker territory.

Unexpectedly, the Belgians put up a fierce resistance on their own soil and slowed down the German advance. The Germans, upon entering Belgium, committed severe human rights violations and acts of war brutality. Subsequently, England, in response to Germany's invasion of a neutral state, declared war on Germany, effectively entering World War I.

Trench Warfare in World War I

With the French also fortifying this region, the trench warfare commonly associated with World War I began. Germany had comprehensive agreements with its ally, Austria-Hungary. Although the Italians initially promised to enter the war alongside Germany, they later switched sides and joined the ranks of the Allied Powers.

While the Germans were engaged in the Eastern Front against the Russians, Austria-Hungary provided full support to clear the Balkans. However, Austria-Hungary was unable to achieve the same level of success as the Germans and found themselves unable to advance in the Balkans.

As the war confined to a narrow area in Europe, Germany was cut off from the resources of its overseas colonies. England, by attacking Germany's African colonies and bombarding German ships in European waters, ensured that Germany would be inadequately supplied on the front lines. Furthermore, with Germany weakening, its colonies in the Far East were occupied and placed under the protection of the Japanese Empire.

Why Did the Ottoman Empire Enter the War?

While the Ottoman Empire initially sought to align with the Allied Powers before the war, the Allies had plans to divide and partition the Ottoman Empire after the war, as would later be revealed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. This led the Ottoman Empire to side with Germany for political reasons, particularly the Committee of Union and Progress (Ittihat ve Terakki) seeking to break free from political isolation, reclaim lost territories from the Balkan Wars, alleviate debt, and, driven by the ideology of Turanism championed by Enver Pasha, connect the Ottoman Empire with the Turks in Central Asia. Thus, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers.

How Did the Ottoman Empire Enter World War I?

When the British navy bombarded and the German ships Goeben and Breslau escaped, taking refuge in the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman Empire officially announced that they had taken possession of the ships. After renaming them Yavuz and Midilli, the Ottoman Empire bombarded the Russian ports of Sevastopol and Odessa. This led to the Ottoman Empire declaring war on Russia. Consequently, the Ottoman Empire found itself actively engaged in World War I.

For Germany, the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war was a significant development. With the help of the Bosporus, Germany gained the opportunity to reduce Russia's dominance at sea. Additionally, Germany believed that the Ottoman Empire, with its Caliphate influence, could wield considerable power. Another crucial aspect for Germany and England was the rich region of Mosul and Kirkuk oil fields, which were indispensable resources for all nations.

Therefore, in the initial stages, England attacked the Ottoman Empire, specifically in Iraq and the Suez Canal region. While the British initially achieved success against the Ottoman Empire, notably in Baghdad and Kirkuk, the Ottomans ultimately secured a decisive victory in Kut al-Amara, which remains one of England's historically overlooked triumphs.

Following these events, Russia experienced turbulent times. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, along with another group called the Mensheviks, posed a threat to the Romanov dynasty. Russia faced an existential crisis under the Romanovs' rule. In response, the British

 and French decided to send significant support to the Romanov dynasty to maintain Russia's involvement in the war. Despite these efforts, the Bolshevik Revolution prevailed, leading to Russia's withdrawal from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

The End of World War I and the Treaty of Sèvres

As the war escalated, with various fronts and theaters, the Ottomans faced severe difficulties. The British, in particular, carried out operations in the Arabian Peninsula, with T.E. Lawrence leading the Arab Revolt, further adding to the pressure on the Ottoman Empire.

In 1917, as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia withdrew from the war. Consequently, the Eastern Front disappeared, giving the Central Powers an opportunity to focus on the Western Front. With the influx of American troops, the tide began to turn against the Central Powers.

In September 1918, the British launched the Battle of Megiddo, which resulted in a significant victory for the Allies. Following this, the Ottoman Empire entered into negotiations with the Allies. On October 30, 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros, officially ending its involvement in the war.

The Treaty of Sèvres, signed on August 10, 1920, between the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire, aimed to dismantle the empire and divide its territories among the victorious nations. However, the Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, saw the resurgence of Turkish nationalism, ultimately resulting in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. This treaty replaced the Treaty of Sèvres and recognized the modern Republic of Turkey, which emerged from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire.

This tumultuous period of the 19th century into the early 20th century had profound and lasting effects on global politics, the Middle East, and the rise of modern Turkey. The legacy of World War I and the fall of empires shaped the geopolitical landscape for decades to come.