The world-renowned philosopher Nietzsche's concept of Übermensch, or "overman," describes a strong, individualistic character who breaks free from herd psychology, creates their own moral code, and guides society.
You might wonder what the Übermensch has to do with Mahmud II. Let's examine the life of Sultan Mahmud, who made his mark in history through lasting reforms in the Ottoman Empire and establishing order in the country.
Remembering Nietzsche's famous quote: "What does not kill you makes you stronger."
This quote perfectly describes the painful process of Sultan Mahmud's ascension to the throne. Sultan Mahmud II grew up in the palace during his princehood, receiving a good education alongside his older brother Mustafa IV under their uncle Sultan Selim III. However, his brother Mustafa would betray Sultan Selim III, one of the most naive and kind-hearted sultans in Ottoman history.
Sultan Selim III had actually wanted to make fundamental changes in the country by establishing the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) army to replace the Janissary corps. However, the rebellious Janissaries were causing chaos because a different army was being established in their place. As a result of the Kabakçı Mustafa rebellion, Sultan Selim III was deposed and replaced by Mustafa IV.
But a pasha from afar would rebel against this injustice and march with his 15,000-strong army. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, the notable of Ruse, mobilized his army from the north to restore Sultan Selim to the throne and came to Istanbul. However, upon learning that this army was in Yeşilköy, Mustafa IV, who was inspecting the bazaar in disguise at that moment, devised a diabolical plan upon receiving the news. To kill his own blood relatives.
There were three people from the Ottoman royal lineage: Sultan Selim, who had been deposed and was confined, and his brother Mahmud, who was similarly in the palace. If he had Sultan Selim and his brother killed, there would be no heir to the throne. This way, even if Alemdar Mustafa Pasha succeeded, there would be no one else to ascend the throne except himself.
He immediately sent word to the palace, and the executioners first brutally murdered Sultan Selim III in the harem quarters. Sultan Mahmud's fate would change here. With the help of his tutor, the 14-year-old prince escaped death by jumping across rooftops and crawling through chimneys, and Alemdar Mustafa Pasha entered the palace at a moment when every minute counted. The body of Sultan Selim, who had been brutally killed in his chamber in the harem, was left in front of the Audience Hall, and when Alemdar Mustafa Pasha broke down the Babüssade gate of the palace, he was confronted with the corpse of Sultan Selim, whom he had come to restore to the throne. He immediately ordered that Prince Mahmud be found, and he was instantly sworn allegiance to and placed on the throne.
Nietzsche's "overman" does not emerge from comfortable circumstances. He rises by facing pain, loneliness, and death.
Mahmud II had also faced the danger of being killed before becoming sultan and had fought a survival battle in the midst of the struggle for the throne. Sultan Mahmud II appointed Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, to whom he owed his throne, as grand vizier. He appointed Cevri Kalfa, who had saved his life, as Treasurer-in-Chief and granted her extensive land in Çamlıca, where he had a mansion built for her.
According to Nietzsche, the overman is born by growing stronger through pain, crises, and difficulties. Mahmud II had also taken the throne with difficulties at a young age and showed resilience under rebellions, assassination attempts, and external pressures.
What did not kill him had made him stronger. Sultan Mahmud issued his brother's death warrant approximately four months later. He was now showing his effect and absolute power had to be his. The Deed of Agreement signed in 1808, which restricted Sultan Mahmud's powers and strengthened the local notables, was orchestrated by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, who had brought the Sultan to the throne, under the influence of his role as savior. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha had become too absorbed in Istanbul. His power was constantly growing. His men had also become involved in looting incidents in the capital and began to annoy the people. Of course, the Janissaries were also sharpening their knives against Alemdar and rebelled. In November 1808, the Janissaries stormed the Sublime Porte where Alemdar was staying. It is rumored that Alemdar Mustafa Pasha sent a request for help to Sultan Mahmud, but the Sultan ignored it. As a result, when no help came from the palace, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, trapped in the basement, set fire to the gunpowder barrels and blew up hundreds of Janissaries along with himself.
According to Nietzsche, the overman is usually incomprehensible, lonely, and often ostracized by his era.
Mahmud II was also a figure who was not well-liked and became isolated both within the palace and among the people. After his reforms and actions, serious opposition had formed among the people and the ulema (religious scholars).
Years later, the Janissary corps would be closed on June 16, 1826, after a bloody reckoning, and this event was called the "Auspicious Incident" (Vaka-i Hayriye). Sultan Mahmud II had now become the sole power in his country.
Nietzsche says: "The overman is a rope stretched between man and beast; a rope over an abyss... The overman has broken away from ordinariness. He separates from the herd, creates his own values, and if necessary, takes the entire order against himself. Courage, loneliness, pain... These are his fuel."
Mahmud II was not just a sultan. He fought against the traditions of his own age. He eliminated the Janissary Corps in 1826. He clashed with the ulema. He undertook to reshape clothing, institutions, schools, and even the minds of the people. Each step brought more loneliness, more threats, more opposition. But he did not stop. Because as Nietzsche said: "Man's greatest enemy is the fear within himself." And Mahmud II had killed that fear long ago.
According to Nietzsche's definition, the overman:
- Determines his own value
- Fights against tradition
- Is incomprehensible to society
- Is alone
- But ultimately determines destiny
Just like Mahmud II...
The 31 years he remained on the throne constitute one of the most troubled periods in Ottoman history politically. He faced events such as the Serbian and Greek revolts in the Balkans that began the empire's disintegration process; the destruction of the Ottoman fleet by Russian, British, and French navies at Navarino; and the armies of the rebellious Egyptian Governor Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha crossing Syria and Anatolia to reach Kütahya. He had the famous Tepedelenli Ali Pasha killed, whose influence reached European courts and who had risen to the position of an independent power from the Ottoman Empire, and he had Abdullah Bin Saud, the ancestral father of today's Saudi Arabian Royalty who rebelled against Mahmud, captured and executed in Istanbul.
On the other hand, Sultan Mahmud II changed the face of the empire with the reforms he implemented and laid the foundations of Ottoman modernization. He became the precursor to the path leading to the Tanzimat Edict, which was declared four months after his death. Due to his actions during his reign, some accepted him as the mujaddid (renewer) expected to come once every century to revive the state and remembered him with the epithet "the Great"; his opponents, however, characterized him as the "infidel sultan" because of the reforms he made. He was the last sultan to use the power of political execution without trial.
After this stormy life, he died on Monday, July 2, 1839, towards morning. He left behind an empire that was completely transformed but strengthened with solid reforms. In his book "Thus Spoke Zarathustra," Nietzsche did not say he was influenced by anyone when defining the overman. That is, Nietzsche did not define the "Overman" concept by pointing to a specific historical person. "Overman" represents a future-oriented ideal in his philosophy and a goal that humanity must transcend. Nietzsche elaborated this concept in detail in his work "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" and gave the message "Man is a being that must be transcended" through the character of Zarathustra.
However, when we look at Sultan Mahmud's life, we can see many similarities. Could Nietzsche have actually been influenced by Sultan Mahmud's life when writing about the overman? What do you think?
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